PANNA: Non-chemical Alternatives to Methyl Bromide | Pesticide Action Network North America

Non-chemical Alternatives to Methyl Bromide

Excerpts from Technical Literature

Pesticide Action Network supports a rapid transition to non-chemical alternatives to methyl bromide. Many of these alternatives have proven to be at least as cost effective as chemical replacements to methyl bromide. Nonchemical alternatives are much safer for public health since many of the chemical alternatives under consideration are acutely toxic (e.g., telone, metam sodium, chloropicrin), carcinogenic (e.g., telone, metam sodium, methyl iodide) or otherwise threaten public health and the environment. For more detailed profiles of these and other chemical alternatives, see the Environmental Defense Fund's Scorecard Website: http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-profiles/.

Non-chemical alternatives do not threaten public health and help promote a more sustainable agricultural system. Summarized below is information on some of the most well established and extensively documented non-chemical alternatives to methyl bromide. For each alternative, a description is provided of the method of application, crops where use has been documented, and the strengths and weaknesses identified by researchers and field-based experts.

Excerpts from a variety of publications describing the alternatives in more detail are listed for each method, with specific examples of documented use in a variety of crops and countries. Full citations for the publications used in compiling this information can be found in the MB Alternatives Resources section below, along with an annotated list of key websites for further information on alternatives (such as the UN Environment Program's "RUMBA" - Regular Update on Methyl Bromide Alternatives Website: http://www.uneptie.org/ozat/pub/rumba/main.html).

Information and excerpts are presented on the following nonchemical approaches:

Solarization
Disease Suppressive Compost
Steam
Hot Water
Hydroponics and Soilless Substrates
New and Developing Technologies
MB Alternatives Resources (Citations, Websites)

NOTE: Research is proceeding rapidly on these and other non-chemical alternatives to methyl bromide as the international phase out dates approach. We will be updating this information periodically, and welcome information on new research findings.

Solarization

Method: Heat treatment of soil by covering with plastic for four to eight weeks. Promotes increase in plant growth and development, crop quality and yield by increasing the availability of plant nutrients and the relative populations of beneficial organisms.
Crops: Strawberry, eggplant, tomato, cucumber, pistachios, almonds, carrots, garlic, peanuts, potatoes, watermelon, onions, artichokes, beans, lettuce, peaches, plums, nectarines, apricots, walnuts, apples and cherries.
Strengths: Effective on a wide range of pests and plant pathogens. Creates an increased growth response like methyl bromide. Little labor involved.
Weaknesses: Climate dependent, in some cases requires field to be fallow for summer - but this is being reduced with better technology (double layering, etc.).

Literature Excerpts:

Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Alternatives to Methyl Bromide: Ten Case Studies- Soil, Commodity, and Structural Use. Volume 2. December 1996. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation. Excerpts from chapter entitled Solarization for Controlling Soilborne Pests and Pathogens in Field Crop Cultivation.

"Solarization is a method in which clear plastic is laid on the soil surface to trap solar radiation and heat the soil. Solarization as a preplant soil treatment to control soilborne pathogens and pests can be a viable alternative to methyl bromide for shallow-rooted, short-season crops...It can be effective against a broad spectrum of soil diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, insect pests and most soilborne bacteria. Solarization also causes complex changes in the biological, physical and chemical properties of the soil that improve plant development, growth, quality, and yield for up to several years."

"Solarization alone or in combination with other pest control technologies could be adopted as a pre-plant soil pest control measure for a variety of different pathogens and pests in a wide range of climates and different cropping systems. Since its inception in 1976, soil solarization has been tested and modified under local conditions in more than 50 countries...Solarization has already proven to be an effective pest control tool for tomato, pepper and eggplant production in the northern part of Florida and North Carolina, strawberry and lettuce production in California, tree nursery production in the southeastern US and orchard crops in California. Solarization also has proven effective in controlling pests (pathogens) for a variety of other crops including pistachios, almonds, carrots, garlic, peanuts, potatoes, watermelon, onions, artichokes, and beans. It must be noted that the effectiveness of this pest control tool is directly linked to climate."

"Solarization also promotes increases in plant growth and development and crop quality and yield by increasing the availability of plant nutrients and the relative populations of beneficial organisms such as rhizosphere bacteria and pseudomones species. Heating causes the release of soluble mineral nutrients from soil organic matter and heat killed soil biota and induces the upward movement of mineral nutrients in the soil profile."

"Costs: solarization = $300-440/acre methyl bromide = $475-730 (broadcast up to $1500)/acre"

Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Alternatives to Methyl Bromide: Ten Case Studies- Soil, Commodity, and Structural Use. Volume 2. December 1996. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation. Excerpts from chapter entitled Soil Solarization as an Alternative to Methyl Bromide in California Orchards.

"Solarization as a pre- or post-plant treatment to control soilborne pathogens and pests is a viable alternative to methyl bromide in orchard crops such as peaches, plums, nectarines, apricots, walnuts, pistachios, almonds, apples and cherries. As early as 1981, soil solarization was successfully used in California to control verticillium wilt in pistachio tree groves. ..In addition to providing pest and pathogen control, solarization conserves water and promotes growth in new orchards or replanted trees in temperate as well as arid climates."

Paramount, CA Journal, Los Angeles Metro Area, December 17, 1998. Excerpts from column on methyl bromide.

"Soil solarization worked as well as methyl bromide in the first San Joaquin Valley field trials comparing the two treatment in strawberries. UC Cooperative Extension farm advisor Richard Molinar and UC IPM plant pathologist Jim Stapleton found that both methyl bromide and soil solarization increased yields more than 30% over untreated plots. Because solarization is much cheaper than methyl bromide treatment, farmers stand to profit $800 to $1000 more per acre by tapping the sun's energy instead of fumigation with the soon-to-be-banned chemical.

'This is just the first year of the study, so we can't go ahead and recommend soil solarization to farmers at this point,' Molinar said. 'But some who have observed our trials and seen the results are beginning to experiment on their own.' Molinar said that the San Joaquin Valley is a "perfect fit" for strawberry field solarization. "Farmers can treat the soil in the heat of the summer, just in time for the traditional Fall planting, and enjoy what appears to be excellent control of weed seeds and soilborne diseases."

Methyl Bromide Alternatives Outreach.1998 Annual International Research Conference on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions. December 7-9, 1998. Excerpts from Soil Solarization: a Perspective from a Northern Temperate Region - Jack Pinkerton, USDA ARS HCRL, Corvallis OR

"Soil solarization has proven to be an effective means to control damage caused by soilborne pests and plant pathogens...Most soilborne pests and plant pathogens are . . . killed at temperatures between 40 and 60 C...Exposure to long periods of sublethal temperatures may effectively control diseases by removing the ability of propagules to germinate, increasing the susceptibility to biological control organisms, and decreasing the ability to infect the host...However, climatic and economic factors most likely will limit the areas where solarization will be practical...Climatic conditions in the Pacific northwest are favorable for solarization." [This study evaluated solarization in field plots artificially and naturally infested with soilborne pathogens and subsequently planted with susceptible nursery or small fruit crops. Conducted during summers of 1995, 1996 and 1997.]

"Based on our experience, Oregon climatic conditions were adequate for solarization. Solarization resulted in a significant reduction in population densities of several important pathogens and the plant diseases which they cause. However, solarization must be done during the summer, precluding a crop and income from the land for one cropping year [for berries]. After the berries are harvested in the spring, the field can be solarized and replanted the following spring."

United Nations Environment Programme.1994 Report of the Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee for the 1995 Assessment of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Kenya, 1994.

"Solarization . . . results not only in reduced disease incidence in the subsequent crops, but also in significant yield increases...Solarization is most successful in dry climates with low number of cloudy days and intense solar hear. It is used by farmers in Greece, Israel, Italy, Spain and other places with similar Mediterranean type climates...Solarization can be used in cooler climates by using clouded plastic houses or greenhouses. This technique has been developed in northern Italy and it is used in Japan in over 2200 hectares of strawberry, eggplant, tomato, and cucumber. Solarization may require treatment periods of 4-8 weeks, so that it may not be useful where such prolonged periods without crops are not available."

Grossman, Joel and Jamie Liebman. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide-Steam and Solarization in Nursery Crops" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 7, July 1995.

"In its simplest form, solar energy is concentrated by spreading a plastic sheet over moistened soil. Energy from the sun raises soil temperatures, triggering biotic and abiotic changes that alter soil ecosystems. Deleterious fungi, soil insect, nematode and weed populations are reduced; growth of heat-tolerant plant-growth-promoting beneficial microbes is enhanced and soils become more disease suppressive. Soil solarization is such a successful new "appropriate technology" that is spread to over 40 countries within 15 years of its introduction. Though initially used only in hot regions during the summer, technological advances are extending the range of solarization to cooler areas and cooler seasons.

"Many green-house and nursery crops worldwide including field-grown cut flowers now utilize solarization. Even in cold greenhouses, solarization has often matched methyl bromide in terms of soil pest control and yields. There are numerous variations of traditional soil solarization-double layers of plastic to increase soil heating, spray on biodegradable mulches, addition of biomass amendments producing biofumigation, and space solarization methods for the treatment of whole greenhouses. Double layers increase soil heating rates, speeding up the solarization process. Indeed, greenhouse and potting soil mixes can now be disinfected in less than two weeks using solarization. IPM programs combining solarization with other soil pest control technologies can also dramatically reduce the amount of time needed for solar soil disinfestation."

Disease Suppressive Compost

Method: Compost which suppresses disease and enriches soil is applied to fields or in nurseries - reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides.
Crops: nursery, greenhouse and field crops.
Strengths: inexpensive and readily available; reduces need for fertilizers and peat; does not normally pose risks to human health during use or handling.
Weaknesses: most greenhouse operations do not have the equipment necessary to fully adopt this technology; large scale field operations may not give consistent results (needs further research); quality control is critical in production of effective disease suppressive compost.

Literature Excerpts:

Methyl Bromide Alternatives Outreach.1998 Annual International Research Conference on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions. December 7-9, 1998. Excerpts from "Compost as an alternative to methyl bromide as a means for nutrient management for strawberry production."

"Recent observations from an on-farm experience indicate that one of the most promising non-chemical systems is known as the Controlled Microbial Composting (CMC) process. The CMC process was developed in Austria and is the leading composting technology used in Europe. The primary concept of the system is to increase soil fertility through the application of aerobically produced compost and a controlled build-up of humus. In addition a major goal of the CMC system is to manage the compost and cropping system to ensure there are no offensive emissions nor environmental pollution problems (ie groundwater contamination)."

"The CMC system has been used very successfully by a strawberry farmer in Virginia. This grower produces 10 acres of strawberries without methyl bromide, with yields comparable to systems that use methyl bromide. He has not encountered the diseases that are often major problems in conventional strawberry production. In addition, after using the system for two years he found that he needed to use only 10% of the usual rate of nitrogen, thus dramatically reducing the amount of N that can be lost to the environment."

Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Alternatives to Methyl Bromide: Ten Case Studies- Soil, Commodity, and Structural Use. Volume 3. September 1997. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation.

"Disease suppressive compost is currently in use in some greenhouses and nurseries in the US. Several companies sell disease suppressive compost growing media mixes that already include necessary fertilizers and wetting agents. These mixes have virtually eradicated the use of expensive fungicide drenches and fumigants like methyl bromide in the greenhouses and nurseries which are using these materials."

"Results from a study in a San Joaquin Valley peach orchard showed that incidence of brown rot was notably higher in peach tree plots that were amended or grown conventionally than in plots that were amended with urban yard waste compost."

"Using disease suppressive compost generally reduces fertilizer inputs and often results in a reduction in labor costs due to the elimination of labor needed to utilize fumigants and the subsequent elimination of a re-entry period in which workers must wait to have access to a fumigated field or area."

Quarles, William and Joel Grossman. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in Nurseries-Disease Suppressive Media" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 8, August 1995.

"Suppressive compost: Use of suppressive compost to prepare suppressive media is an extremely attractive alternative to methyl bromide fumigation, as many of the materials employed would otherwise end up in a landfill. Agricultural or sawmill waste, municipal green waste, or sewage sludge can be composted and utilized. Since suppressive compost can be produced without increasing greenhouse gases or relying on non-renewable energy resources, it may be the methyl bromide alternative with the least negative impact on the environment. As composting often costs no more than landfill disposal, suppressive medias cost less than media fumigated with methyl bromide or drenched with fungicide."

"Three phases to compost production: 1.) Initial hot phase, 1-2 days, immediate consumption of easily "burned" materials 2.) Thermophilic phase lasting for up to a few months, where much of cellulose is degraded. 3.) Final curing phase when temps decline, decomposition rates decrease, and mesophilic organisms recolonize the compost."

"Municipal green waste compost is a renewable resource available in large quantity. CA and FL combined produce about nine million tons a year. Currently at least two million tons a year are being composted and sold for horticultural use. The amounts available could make composted green waste a practical alternative to methyl bromide in the nursery industry."

"Prof Harry Hoitink [Ohio State University] reports high potential for successful use of suppressive composts in strawberry production. Large-scale composting plus crop rotation could potentially replace methyl bromide in the strawberry industry."

"The most difficult problem facing the engineers designing large-scale composting operations is quality control. Unless aerobic conditions are strictly maintained, the compost will partially ferment, producing a "sour" compost containing organic acids that can be toxic to plants."

"Conclusion: Use of supressive media to replace methyl bromide fumigation solves several problems. Materials headed for landfills can be diverted for a useful purpose. Wetlands harboring scarce sources of peat can be spared from peat mining operations. Nurseries can save money on containerized plants as disease suppressive mixes cost less than fumigated media. Since suppressive mixtures are not effective if they are drenched with chemicals, nurseries will be encouraged to solve their other pest problems with IPM methods less dependent on chemical pesticides."

Steam

Method: Steam kills pathogens by heating the soil to levels that cause protein coagulation or enzyme inactivation in pests. Soil temperatures of at least 70 degrees C must be achieved for 30 minutes.
Crops: Greenhouses and some small-scale field nurseries: ornamental bedding plants, potted foliage and flowering houseplants, fresh-cut flowers and greens, bulbs, container perennials, propagating material, vegetable starts, greenhouse-grown vegetables, garden seeds, and sod.
Strengths: Highly efficient and cost-effective; leaves no toxic residue, requires little aeration time; can disinfest non-soil substances.
Weaknesses: High capital and maintenance cost of boilers; high capital and short life of tarps; problems of application where soils are exposed to rain immediately prior to or during a scheduled treatment; fuel and labor costs.

Literature Excerpts:

"Nursery crops account for 20% of the worldwide use of methyl bromide for soil fumigation. Steam sterilization can be an effective pest control method for many nursery crops, including ornamental bedding plants, garden seeds, vegetable starts fresh cut flowers...In California these industries are worth $2 billion in gross receipts or about 10% of the total value of California's agricultural commodities."

"In greenhouses: use of steam is quick and efficient. Boilers used to heat greenhouses can be adapted to supply steam for sterilizing greenhouse benches or soil bins...More recently, small portable steam generators have been developed and used for greenhouse benches in the US and the Netherlands."

"Small nursery fields: Movable steam applicators, such as the steam rake and the steam blade have been used extensively in nursery fields. Both are pulled through the soil either by a winch or a self-propelled unit containing a boiler to produce steam. In Florida several small steam machines have been developed for field use. Using these machines can be less expensive and in some conditions may be more effective than methyl bromide fumigation...Steam cultivation is also used in the Netherlands, where methyl bromide soil fumigation has been banned for several years and where large mobile boilers have been developed and used in fields...For high value Dutch crops such as carnation and cut flowers, field soils have also been disinfested by embedded steam pipes directly in the field."

Grossman, Joel and Jamie Liebman. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide-Steam and Solarization in Nursery Crops" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 7, July 1995.

"Steaming is a good method of soil disinfestation. Although sterilization or pasteurization of large agricultural field might not be practical, steam treatments of soil and growth media in the smaller spaces of greenhouses and field nurseries is definitely within reach of today's technology. The costs of steaming vary with the cost of energy, water cost and soil permeability."

Hot Water

Method: Top twelve inches of soil is injected with superheated (104 degrees C) water to kill pests and pathogens
Crops: Currently being tested in Florida on tomatoes, USEPA says potential application is broad.
Strengths: Fields are typically watered prior to planting, so no additional water requirements; no risks to human health.
Weaknesses: Method is slow and tough to achieve uniform temperature elevations in soil. Requires boilers or other means of heating water.

Literature Excerpts:

Liebman, Jamie and Sheila Daar. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in California Grape Production" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 2, February 1995.

"Dr. Joe Noling, in conjunction with Aqua Heat Technology, Inc is developing a machine to pasteurize field soil by injecting it with hot water. This machine is still in development, but a prototype has been tested in Florida tomatoes and citrus and is highly effective at killing nematodes. The most promising design to date uses a tractor carrying a tank of hot, superheated (104 d C) water. The water is shanked into soil at a depth of 12 in. And a rotovator distributes the heat throughout the top foot of soil. The 1-1.5 acre inches of water is not wasted, since pre-plant irrigation is a standard procedure."

Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Alternatives to Methyl Bromide: Ten Case Studies-Soil, Commodity, and Structural Use. Volume 1. July 1995. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation.

"Successful sterilization of the soil using hot water requires proper soil conditions, tillage, and dosage to ensure uniform heating of soil to lethal temperatures. Current estimates suggest that approximately 25,000-50,000 gallons of hot water are required per acre for effective nematode control. ..Because this technology is used for preplant soil sterilization and raises the soil temperature to levels in excess of temperatures lethal to nematodes, it's application potential for crops is broad."

Hydroponics and Soilless Substrates

Method: Majority of plant's nutrient needs is met by mixing water soluble nutrients with water and eliminating need for soil. May still use inert substrate to physically support root systems and hold the hydroponic solution.
Crops: Greenhouse tomatoes, strawberries, cucumbers, peppers, eggplants, and some flowers.
Strengths: Absence of weeds and soilborne pests, no toxic residue, conserves water, control over nutrient and oxygen conditions, increases crop quality and yield.
Weaknesses: High capital costs (but operating costs are low).

Literature Excerpts:

"The use of hydroponic technology can be a viable alternative to methyl bromide soil fumigation for [crops listed above]..Economic advantages include potentially fast and flexible hydroponic cropping period, which allows growers to quickly change production to take advantage of market conditions."

Ministry of Environment and Energy, Denmark Environmental Review (Vol. 4); Production of Flowers and Vegetables in Danish Greenhouses: Alternatives to Methyl Bromide, 1997. Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

"The use of methyl bromide is prohibited in Denmark effective 1 January 1998. Most greenhouse vegetables and cut flowers in Denmark are grown in soilless systems. The main substrate among Danish growers is inert material, primarily stone wool. A slight increase in tomato yield is observed when changing to soilless substrates. For many other vegetables and flowers no differences in yield have been observed by this change. Soilless growing does not eliminate root disease, but disease can be held at a low level in most systems. The susceptibility of plants to disease is closely correlated with environmental and nutritional stresses. Environmental controls and good hygienic practices are the most important components of disease control.

"Soilless systems need frequent irrigation with complete nutrient solutions. They use the same amount of water as soil systems. Used substrate can be returned to the factory and reused in Denmark. Competitive soilless growing relies on the sophistication of growers and extension service together with a high degree of supply security in raw materials."

Liebman, Jamie. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in California Strawberry Production" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVI, number 7, July 1994.

"Glasshouse strawberries in the Netherlands: The Netherlands was formerly one of Europe's largest users of methyl bromide for soil fumigation. During the 1980s, methyl bromide was phased out. Nevertheless, production of crops formerly dependent on methyl bromide has increased."

"Plants are grown on artificial substrate on hanging shelves in greenhouses or on raised shelves outdoors. The roots and runners do not contact the soil and thus soilborne diseases and pests are reduced. Water and nutrients are pumped to the plants with a regulated trickle irrigation system. Drip irrigation reduces plant wetness and related foliage pest problems. The nutrients and water which drain from the roots may be recycled to reduce waste and environmental contamination. Growers sterilize recycled water by heating it to about 90C. ..These systems are expensive. However, yields are 18 tons per acre per 4-month growth and harvest cycle and growers can produce 2 to 3 crops pa, for a total annual yield higher than that of California's best conventional growers."

New and Developing Technologies

Benzaldehyde, a component found in the essential oil of peaches, could be commercialized within two to four years for control of root pathogens. "We took the four major root pathogens and fumigated with benzaldehyde and got very good control in soil that had been infested with these pathogens," says Charles L. Wilson, a plant pathologist at the Agricultural Research Service's Appalachian Fruit Research Station in Kearneysville, W. Virginia. - Chemical Market Reporter, 03/22/99, Vol. 255 Issue 12, p25.
Mites - Sweetbriar Development, Inc. uses beneficial insects to control pests. Phytoseiulus persimilis mites prey on two-spotted spider mites which are serious pests to strawberry plants. Each persimililis mite will eat two to seven adult two-spots a day, although they prefer the two-spot's eggs. Utilizing the insects requires first bringing previously fumigated soil acres to a point where they don't need methyl bromide. This is accomplished through cover crops, composting, and other means of enriching the soil. 25,000, to 30,000 persimilis mites per acre are required to control spider mites and two-spotted mites. The mites are raised in lima bean trays and then sold to growers. - PAN Interview with Carmelo Sicairos of Sweetbriar Development, 16 March 1999.
Root Fungus - USDA researcher Dr. Carolee Bull is exploring the use of fungus to protect strawberry plant roots from pathogens. Her research focuses on use of mycorrhizal, a root fungus essential to a plant's survival and growth. The project involves three to four research locations in Monterey and Santa Cruz counties and work with organic growers. - Salinas Californian Jan 23, 1999.
The USDA has found that extracts from hot peppers and cloves protect cut chrysanthemums from Fusarium wilt. Researchers as the US National Arboretum in Beltsville MD are using extracts of clove and cassia tree, as well as a mixture of chili pepper extract and essential oil of mustard to treat soils. Champs All Natural Products Inc., in Pompano Beach, FL, has developed a fumigant from food quality spices which has been shown to provide 99.9% kill of Fusarium oxysporum. The Champon fumigant is currently being tested, but is expected to provide control of nutsedge, a serious weed problem. More information is available at www.champon.com. - Florida Grower, vol. 91 (3) March 1998.

Resources
Citations

Chemical Market Reporter, 03/22/99, Vol. 255 Issue 12, p25.

Florida Grower, vol. 91 (3) March 1998.

Grossman, Joel and Jamie Liebman. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide-Steam and Solarization in Nursery Crops" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 7, July 1995.

Liebman, Jamie. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in California Strawberry Production" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVI, number 7, July 1994 .

Liebman, Jamie and Sheila Daar. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in California Grape Production" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 2, February 1995.

Methyl Bromide Alternatives Outreach.1998 Annual International Research Conference on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions. December 7-9, 1998.

Ministry of Environment and Energy, Denmark Environmental Review (Vol. 4); Production of Flowers and Vegetables in Danish Greenhouses: Alternatives to Methyl Bromide, 1997. Danish Environmental Protection Agency.

Paramount, CA Journal, Los Angeles Metro Area, December 17, 1998.

Quarles, William and Joel Grossman. "Alternatives to Methyl Bromide in Nurseries-Disease Suppressive Media" The IPM Practitioner, volume XVII, number 8, August 1995.

Salinas Californian Jan 23, 1999.

Websites

AgNIC - (http://www.agnic.org): Provides information on and links to agricultural databases as well as internet sites searchable by keyword.

BioIntegral Resource Center (BIRC) - (http://www.igc.apc.org/birc/): Includes membership and ordering information for BIRC publications, and information on IPM.

Environment Canada - (http://www.ec.gc.ca/): Canada's compliance for phaseouts.

Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee - (http://www.unep.org/ozone/teap/Reports/MBTOC/index.asp): Recent MBTOC reports and information on MBTOC members

RUMBA - Regular Update on Methyl Bromide alternatives - (http://www.uneptie.org/ozonaction/compliance/rumba/main.html): Copies of the RUMBA newsletter, an United Nations Environment Programme publication distributed periodically vie email and fax.

Southern European Alternatives Workshop - (http://www.ccma.csic.es/agroecol/mebr/mebr1.htm): Proceedings from a 1997 workshop on methyl bromide alternatives in Southern European Countries

United Kingdom Science Laboratory - (http://www.csl.gov.uk): Central Science Laboratory provides information on methyl bromide regulations in the UK and other industrialized countries, and includes a discussion of research priorities for methyl bromide alternatives

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Methyl Bromide Home Page - (http://www.epa.gov/spdpublc/mbr/): Provides an overview of U.S. policy on the methyl bromide phase out, discussion of alternatives, "myths and facts" about the phase out, and numerous links to other methyl bromide related online resources.

USDA Research Home Page - (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/mb/mebrweb.htm): Overview of USDA research on alternatives to methyl bromide, with specific research results and links to university sites.

USDA Newsletter Homepage- (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/np/mba/mebrhp.htm): Online copies of recent issues of the Methyl Bromide Alternatives quarterly newsletter.

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